International Journal of Agriculture and Sustainable Development
International Journal of Agriculture and Sustainable Development (ISSN 2618-1193) is an international peer-reviewed and "Open Access" HEC Recognized journal designed to explore advances in Agriculture. Researchers can submit their field observations and the results of laboratory experiments to IJASD within "Aims and Scopes" of the journal. The journal publishes issues quarterly. Rapid Publication: manuscripts are transparently reviewed by international and local reviewers and the first decision is communicated to authors within 10-15 Days. High Visibility: indexed in HEC, MDPI, REPEC and other database...... Recognition of Reviewers: Reviewers providing timely decisions and thorough peer-review reports are acknowledged with a discount in Article Processing Charges.
Current Trends and Breeding Strategies for the Development of Industry-Quality Durum Wheat: A Comprehensive Review
Introduction: Durum wheat (Triticum turgidum subsp. durum) is an important cereal crop known for its superior seed and protein quality. It is widely used in the production of pasta, semolina, couscous, bulgur, noodles, and bakery products. Objective: This review evaluates the global and Pakistani status of durum wheat, highlighting its lower production compared to common wheat and the importance of quality-related traits. Methodology: A comprehensive literature review was conducted on durum wheat production, quality traits, and breeding strategies. Both conventional methods (pedigree selection, single-seed descent, bulk selection) and modern approaches (Marker-Assisted Breeding and Marker-Assisted Selection for gene pyramiding) were analyzed. Results: Protein-related parameters such as glutenins, gliadins, 1000 kernel weight, test weight, yellow pigmentation, SDS sedimentation, and protein content significantly influence industrial quality. Molecular breeding approaches, particularly MAS and gene pyramiding, effectively enhance grain protein and quality traits, enabling the development of improved cultivars. Conclusion: Integrating conventional and modern breeding techniques is essential for improving durum wheat productivity and quality. Marker-assisted approaches play a key role in developing high-quality cultivars to meet industrial demands, providing direction for future research in Pakistan and globally.
Durum wheat, Grain quality, Common wheat, Molecular marker, Conventional and Non-conventional strategies
Screening of Maize (Zea mays L.) Genotypes for Resistance Against Fall Armyworm (Spodoptera Frugiperda) Under Field Conditions
Fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) has emerged as one of the most destructive invasive insect pests threatening global maize production, particularly under changing climatic conditions. The present study was conducted to evaluate the resistance response of ten maize genotypes against fall armyworm under natural field infestation conditions. The experiment was laid out in a Randomized Complete Block Design with three replications. Data were recorded for phenological traits, yield-related parameters, and fall armyworm damage characteristics, including infestation percentage, leaf damage score, and ear damage score. Significant variation was observed among maize genotypes for all studied traits. Days to tasseling ranged from 55 to 61 days, while days to silking varied from 58 to 64 days. PH ranged from 198 to 232 cm and CL varied between 15.9 and 20.1 cm. Significant differences were also observed for yield-related traits, where grain yield ranged from 4860 to 7825 kg ha⁻¹. Genotype G5 produced the highest grain yield (7825 kg ha⁻¹), maximum cob length (20.1 cm), highest number of grains per cob (536), and maximum 100-grain weight (34.6 g). In contrast, G8 produced the lowest grain yield (4860 kg ha⁻¹) with poor yield-related performance. Fall armyworm infestation percentage ranged from 21.2 to 62.5%, while leaf damage score and ear damage score varied from 2.3–7.4 and 2.1–6.8, respectively. Genotype G5 exhibited the lowest infestation percentage (21.2%), minimum leaf damage score (2.3), and lowest ear damage score (2.1), indicating strong resistance/tolerance against fall armyworm. Conversely, G8 was identified as the most susceptible genotype with the highest infestation percentage (62.5%), leaf damage score (7.4), and ear damage score (6.8). Correlation analysis revealed strong negative associations of fall armyworm infestation and ear damage with grain yield, while yield showed positive associations with cob length, number of grains per cob, and 100-grain weight.
Isolation, Screening and Molecular Characterization of Cellulase producing Trichoderma Strains
Cellulose is the most abundant polysaccharide on earth, and its crystalline structure is challenging to break down into sub-particles. To overcome the issue, cellulase enzyme plays a key role in the breakdown of cellulose into glucose monomers. Microorganisms, such as fungi, are known for the production of various commercially important enzymes. Among fungal genera, Aspergillus and Trichoderma are considered to have great potential for cellulase production. The present study was conducted to collect 75 soil samples from different districts in Punjab to isolate the Trichoderma strains. The isolated Trichoderma strains were then screened through double-phase screening methods. The highest cellulase-producing strain was characterized based on the internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region using the primer sets ITS1F and ITS4 and was identified as Trichoderma asperellumm. Congo red dye and cellulase assay showed the maximum activity of 0.83 U/ml from Trichoderma asperellum and was used for cellulase production. Endoglucanase was produced using basal media with CMC as a substrate at 28ºC for 72h. Crude extract was subjected to the Lowry assay and the total protein content was recorded. Cellulase was partially purified using various ammonium sulfate concentrations (30-80%). Partially purified enzyme characterized based on temperature and pH. The enzyme showed a maximum specific activity of 104.39 U/mg after dialysis. The maximum activity of the partially purified enzyme was observed at pH 4 and temperature 55ºC
Inter-Relational Grouping and Genetic Diversity Estimates of Adaptable Okara (Abelmoschus esculentus L.)
The vegetable crop known as okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) is a prominent one that is grown all over the world. Frequently called the "ideal villager's vegetable," it provides a wealth of vitamins, minerals, and elements that support general human health. Okra, a member of the Malvaceae family, is produced and consumed in a variety of ways, and because of its declining yields, breeders must work to create new varieties that can significantly increase and stabilize production. A study was carried out at the Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics, University of Agriculture, Faisalabad, to evaluate the genetic diversity of okra. In the experiment, 12 distinct okra genotypes were assessed to determine their yield patterns and associated attributes during the 2023 kharif season using a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Data were collected for plant height, number of nodes, number of fruits, fruit length, fruit diameter, petiole length, internodal distance, stem diameter, fresh weight, dry weight, and number of seeds. Highly significant differences (P ≤ 0.01) were observed among genotypes for all studied traits, indicating the presence of substantial genetic variability. Phenotypic variance (PV) was only slightly higher than genotypic variance (GV) for all traits, while environmental variance (EV) remained very low, demonstrating strong genetic control. For example, plant height showed GV and PV values of 227.86 and 234.21, respectively, while number of seeds exhibited GV and PV values of 37.09 and 38.12, respectively. Fruit diameter displayed a significantly positive correlation with stem diameter (r = 0.5492**) and plant height (r = 0.5283**), whereas number of nodes showed a strong positive association with number of fruits (r = 0.7796**) and zero nodal distance (r = 0.7032**). Fresh weight was highly associated with dry weight (r = 0.9781**) and stem diameter (r = 0.8274**). Principal component analysis revealed that the first three principal components accounted for 84.05% of the total variability, with PC1 alone contributing 40.65% of the variation. Cluster analysis grouped the 12 genotypes into four distinct clusters at a 66.67% similarity index, indicating broad genetic diversity among the germplasm. Among the tested genotypes, PBG-OKRA-69 outperformed others for plant height, node count, fruit number, and fruit diameter, while PBG-OKRA-28 showed superior performance for stem diameter, fresh weight, and dry weight. These genotypes may be effectively utilized in future breeding programs aimed at improving yield and adaptability in Okra.
Comparative Evaluation of Yield Performance and Earliness in Maize (Zea mays L.) Hybrids under the National Uniform Yield Trial (NUYT)
The objective of this study was to assess the performance of 12 maize genotypes, including one check genotype (genotype 1), for phenology, morphology, and yield traits in the field. A randomized complete block design with three replications was used. Observations were made for DFM, DFF, PH, EH, TPH, TEH, SP, yield (kg) and yield (kg/ha). Analysis of variance revealed significant differences for most traits, suggesting that there is a considerable amount of genetic variability. The differences among genotypes were statistically significant at (P ≤ 0.05). Mean comparisons were performed using the LSD test at 5% probability level. Standard errors (±SE) were calculated for all measured traits, and confidence intervals (95%) confirmed the reliability of the observed differences among genotypes. Average performance revealed that several genotypes outperformed the check for important traits. Genotypes 3 and 7 were early flowering (DFM = 66 days; DFF = 68 days), while genotypes 4 and 11 were late flowering. PH ranged from 165 cm (check) to 235 cm (genotype 5), and EH from 110 to 150 cm. TPH and TEH were higher in genotype 5, while the lowest was in genotype 3. SP varied from 82.4% to 90.0% (genotypes 2 and 5, respectively). Genotypes differed in yield, with the highest yield (7.2 kg; 11946 kg/ha) in genotype 12, followed by genotypes 8 and 2, whereas the lowest yield was in genotype 3. Correlation studies showed that yield was positively correlated with PH, EH, and related traits, suggesting they could play a significant role in yield enhancement. In general, genotype 12 was the best performer, followed by genotypes 8 and 2. This research suggests that selection for plant architecture and yield components can lead to improved maize yield.
Characterization of Vegetable Ice cream with improved Nutritional Qualities
Ice cream is a nutritious and delicious product enjoyed in frozen form in all regions of the world. In recent times, consumer demand has increased for ice cream that consists of functional ingredients to fulfill not only the nutritional needs of the body but also to help manage health-related conditions. There is a need to replace cow/buffalo milk with vegetable milk to address lactose intolerance problems. Sweet potato is rich in starch, vitamin C, vitamin A, fiber, potassium, iron, and protein, and it also contributes to food security. The primary purpose of the research was the preparation of ice cream for lactose-intolerant patients and to offer a wide range of functional ingredients to tackle high cholesterol issues in dairy ice cream. The key component in the ice cream was soymilk, which was combined with coconut cream. A varying proportion of sweet potato flour (5%, 10%, 15%, and 20%) was used, and the obtained results were analyzed statistically. The physicochemical, antioxidant, textural, and sensory properties of prepared ice cream samples were investigated. The obtained results after the physicochemical analysis of vegetable-based ice cream revealed that the addition of sweet potato flour increased total solids, ash, and protein, while moisture and fat contents were decreased significantly. The total solid content of ice cream increased from 32.16% to 38.13%, and the solids-not-fat content of the samples increased from 19.41 % to 28.23 %. Protein content increased from 3 % to 5 %, and ash content increased from 0.74% to 1.37% with the increase in sweet potato flour percentage. Textural analysis revealed that overrun percentage and resistance to melting decreased, and viscosity increased from 1821 cp to 3918 cp. Total phenolic content and antioxidant activity by DPPH also increased from 32-95 mg GAE/g and 3.21-14.23%, respectively. Among all the treatments, highly appreciated ones were with 5% and 10 % sweet potato in terms of all sensory attributes.
Comparative Evaluation of Chemical Resistance Inducers (Methyl Jasmonate, Salicylic Acid, Chitosan, Sodium Nitroprusside, and Calcium Carbide) for Managing Early Blight (Alternaria solani) in Tomato
The present study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of different resistance-inducing agents against fungal pathogens associated with diseased tomato plants collected from the National Agricultural Research Centre and PMAS-Arid Agriculture University, Rawalpindi. Two pathogens, Alternaria solani (causing early blight) and Pythium spp. (causing damping-off), were identified. Early blight incidence was recorded at 44% and 22% at the respective locations, while damping-off was observed only at PMAS-AAUR. Pathogenicity of A. solani was confirmed through Koch’s postulates on tomato cultivar Reograndi and line-95017, with the latter exhibiting higher susceptibility and being selected for subsequent experiments. Resistance inducers, including methyl jasmonate (MeJA), salicylic acid (SA), chitosan (CH), sodium nitroprusside (SNP), and calcium carbide (CaC₂; ethylene donor), were applied before pathogen inoculation. Significant differences (p ≤ 0.05) were observed among treatments for disease severity assessed 10 days after inoculation. MeJA treatment resulted in the lowest disease severity (14.15%), representing a ~68.5% reduction compared to the positive control (44.98%). However, the reduction achieved by MeJA was statistically at par with CaC₂ (16.58%) and CH (18.21%), indicating non-significant differences among these treatments. SNP also significantly reduced disease severity (23.80%), whereas SA showed comparatively lower efficacy (30.13%), remaining significantly higher than MeJA-treated plants but lower than the positive control. The results indicate that resistance inducers associated with jasmonic acid and ethylene signaling pathways were more effective against the necrotrophic pathogen A. solani, while SA-mediated resistance was comparatively less effective. The moderate efficacy of CH and SNP suggests their role in activating induced systemic resistance and basal defense mechanisms. Overall, the study demonstrates that resistance inducers can significantly reduce early blight severity and may be integrated into sustainable disease management strategies, provided that inducer selection aligns with pathogen biology.
Genetic Analysis of Quantitative Traits in Elite Bitter Gourd (Momordica charantia L.) Hybrids Using a Top-Cross Mating Design
Bitter gourd (Momordica charantia L.) is an economically important cucurbit crop, and the development of superior hybrids with improved yield-associated traits is a major objective of breeding programs. The present study aimed to evaluate hybrid performance and identify superior bitter gourd hybrids using a top-cross mating design. Fourteen diverse female lines were crossed with a common tester to develop fourteen F₁ hybrids. The hybrids, their parents, and a commercial check were evaluated under field conditions using a randomized complete block design with three replications. Data were recorded for growth, earliness, fruit morphological traits, seed traits, and total yield per plant. Analysis of variance revealed highly significant differences among genotypes for all studied traits, indicating substantial genetic variability. Ability analysis combination revealed that hybrids 19x38, 57x38, and 54x38 showed the most positive GCA effects (GCA = +177.40, +118.74, and +55.40 for plant height, respectively) for various yield-associated traits. Normal heterosis analysis showed that hybrid 19x38 was better than the commercial check by 27.27 percent of total yield per plant, followed by 57x38 (+16.88) and 54x38 (+9.09). Hybrid 19x38 (264.96 g) recorded the greatest single fruit weight, representing an increase of 145.8 percent over the commercial check. The results indicated the contribution of both additive and non-additive gene actions in the inheritance of yield-associated traits. The identified superior hybrids represent promising genetic material for future multi-location testing and potential commercialization aimed at enhancing bitter gourd productivity.
Evaluation of Commercially Available Biostimulants on Growth, Seed Yield, and Oil Quality of Sunflower Under Rainfed Conditions
A field experiment was conducted during the spring season of 2025 at the University Research Farm, Koont (Punjab, Pakistan), to evaluate the effectiveness of commercially available biostimulants on the growth, yield, and oil quality of sunflower grown under rainfed conditions. The experiment was conducted using a Randomized Complete Block Design (RCBD) with five treatments and three replications each: T1: Control (basal fertilization only), T2: Wokozim Power Plus (granular application 25 kg ha-1), T3: Maxicrop Liquid Seaweed (foliar spray 5 L ha⁻¹), T4: Small Liquid Packs (foliar spray 2.5 L ha⁻¹), and T5: Liquid Seaweed Extract (foliar spray 4 L ha⁻¹). Growth parameters measured included chlorophyll content, plant height, stem girth, number of leaves, growth rate, and head diameter, while yield attributes comprised number of achenes per head, 1000-achene weight, achene yield, biological yield, and harvest index. Quality parameters such as oil content, fatty acid composition, and seed protein were also analyzed. Results showed significant treatment effects on all parameters. The LSD values of the studied parameters are: Chlorophyll content (3.10), Oil Content (2.6), Palmitic Acid (0.4), Stearic Acid (0.30), Oleic Acid (2.2), Linoleic Acid (2.5), Seed protein Content (1.9), Number of achenes (95), 1000-Achenes Weight (4.10), Achenes Yield (210), Biological Yield (420), Harvest Index (3.8), Plant Height (8.5), Stem Girth (0.22), Number of leaves (2.10), Growth Rate (0.48), Head Diameter (2.4). The tallest plants were recorded in T5 (172 cm), whereas maximum stem girth (3.35 cm) and growth rate (4.63 g day⁻¹) were also associated with foliar biostimulant treatments. T4 produced the highest number of leaves (22.94) and head diameter (22.00 cm), indicating improved vegetative vigor. Yield performance was prominently enhanced by biostimulant application, with T4 generating the greatest number of achenes (1177), the highest 1000-achene weight (68.48 g), achene yield (3727 kg ha⁻¹), biological yield (8311 kg ha⁻¹), and harvest index (48%). In contrast, the control consistently exhibited the lowest values across growth and yield traits. Quality analysis further demonstrated the performance of foliar treatments. T4 and T5 recorded higher chlorophyll content (~47 SPAD) and oil content (~42%), while oleic acid and seed protein increased to 30.7% and 20.82%, respectively. Saturated fatty acids remained stable or slightly reduced, suggesting improved nutritional quality of the oil. Overall, foliar application of seaweed-based biostimulants enhanced physiological activity, assimilate partitioning, and seed composition, ultimately leading to superior crop productivity under moisture-limited conditions.
Evaluating the Efficacy of Different Chemical Treatments on Weed Density, Biomass Accumulation, and Physiological Traits in Pearl Millet
Weeds are one of the major limitations to the productivity of crops in that they compete with vital resources like light, nutrients, water, and space. The current research aimed to determine the efficacy of various weed management treatments on the weed density, biomass production, weed moisture content and species composition. The experiment was planned in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) involving seven treatments (T1–T7) and three replications. The data were systematically measured on weed flora, weed density (2.54–33.79 plants m⁻²), fresh biomass (14.04–241.29 g m⁻²), dry biomass (7.00–149.21 g m⁻²), moisture content (41.99–241.29%), and dry-matter percentage (35.49–57.00%). The ANOVA showed that the effect of treatments on all the parameters measured was highly significant (p < 0.01), especially on fresh and dry biomass, indicating that the treatments strongly suppressed weeds. T1 had the lowest weed density (2.54 plants m⁻²), fresh biomass (14.04 g m⁻²), and dry biomass (7.00 g m⁻²), while T7 had the highest values (33.79 plants m⁻², 241.29 g m⁻², and 149.21 g m⁻², respectively), indicating weed suppression of more than 90% under T1 compared to T7. Correlation analysis showed strong positive relationships among weed density, fresh biomass, and dry biomass (r = 0.86–0.98, p < 0.01). This confirms that higher weed populations lead to increased biomass. The content of moisture had weak and non-significant correlations (r = –0.13 to –0.03) with other characteristics, indicating its weak influence on weed growth dynamics. Weed density data showed that T1 recorded the lowest populations of broad-leaves (5.00 plants m⁻²), sedges (0.67 plants m⁻²), khabal (2.00 plants m⁻²), and madhana (0.00 plants m⁻²) at 15 DAS, whereas T7 exhibited the highest densities for broad-leaves (92.00 plants m⁻²) and sedges (28.67 plants m⁻²), indicating severe infestation under untreated conditions. At 30 DAS, T4 recorded the lowest densities of broad-leaves and sedges (3.33 plants m⁻² each), and T3 had the lowest khabal density (0.67 plants m⁻²), while T7 again recorded the maximum values for most weed groups, confirming its lowest weed suppression efficiency. In general, the findings indicated the significance of proper weed-management methods to minimize weed pressure and improve crop production systems. The results are useful in the choice of suitable weed control measures in similar agro-ecological settings. The graphical abstract has been drawn in Figure 1.
Isolation and Molecular Characterization of Root-Associated Bacteria from Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. Narowal, Punjab, Pakistan
Butea monosperma (Lam.) Taub. is a medium-sized leguminous arboreal species in the family Fabaceae, characterized by its commercial value, pharmaceutical properties, and ecological importance. The overexploitation of this plant has caused it to be listed in the Red List of endangered species. This research aimed to isolate and molecularly identify plant root-associated bacteria from B. monosperma. Root samples were carefully collected, and pure cultures were prepared. Biochemical and morphological characterization was performed through staining and microscopy, respectively. Genomic DNA was isolated using a phenol–chloroform extraction method. The isolated DNA was quantified using spectrophotometry (A260/280) and 1% agarose gel electrophoresis. Molecular identification was carried out by amplifying the bacterial 16S rRNA gene using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). The amplicons were sent for Next-Generation Sequencing (NGS). The obtained sequence was submitted to NCBI to obtain an accession number. The phylogenetic tree was constructed using MEGA 12. The isolated bacterium was Gram-positive and morphologically appeared rod-shaped. The spectrophotometric ratio A260/280 was 1.85, and the amplicon size on agarose gel electrophoresis was 1360 base pairs. Phylogenetic analysis showed a 98% genetic similarity to Bacillus subtilis, which was confirmed through BLAST results. The accession number obtained was PX480147. Bacillus subtilis is a plant growth-promoting bacterium, and it could be applied in the plantation of B. monosperma.. The development of plant–root associations could be the best strategy for the conservation of this endangered species.
Sweet Sorghum (Sorghum bicolor var. saccharatum) as a Dual-Use Crop for Feed and Bioenergy in the Arabian Gulf: A Systems Perspective for Desert Agriculture
Agriculture in the Arabian Gulf operates under extreme constraints, including high temperatures, chronic water scarcity, saline soils, and heavy dependence on energy-intensive irrigation systems. These pressures intensify the need for crop systems that can simultaneously support food security, livestock feed, and renewable energy production. Sweet sorghum (Sorghum bicolor var. saccharatum), a C4 crop with high water-use efficiency and heat and salinity tolerance, has emerged as a promising candidate for such multifunctional systems. This paper examines the potential role of sweet sorghum in desert and urban-fringe agricultural systems of the Arabian Gulf through a systems-level synthesis of climate adaptation, soil and salinity performance, water regimes, end-use quality, safety considerations, and regeneration and economic viability. Evidence across arid and semi-arid regions indicates that sweet sorghum can sustain biomass and sugar production under high temperatures, deficit irrigation, and moderate salinity, while providing grain for food and feed, forage for livestock, and fermentable sugars for bioenergy. Management practices such as delayed harvest and ensiling effectively mitigate risks associated with nitrate and prussic acid accumulation, supporting safe forage utilization. Beyond individual agronomic traits, this perspective highlights how sweet sorghum integrates into broader food–feed–fuel systems by reducing water demand, enhancing land productivity, and contributing to renewable energy pathways in water-limited environments. The analysis identifies key knowledge gaps, including cultivar selection under extreme heat and humidity, seed supply strategies, and pilot-scale implementation in Gulf soils. Overall, sweet sorghum is presented not as a single-purpose crop, but as a strategic component of resilient desert farming systems aligned with long-term sustainability and energy diversification goals in the Arabian Gulf.
Biotechnology Enabled Genetic Improvement of Pea (Pisum sativum): From Genomic Tools to Commercial Cultivar Development
The pea (Pisum sativum L.) is a significant cool-season legume that is valued for its role in sustainable cropping systems, nutritional value, and capacity to fix nitrogen. Despite its importance, a limited genetic base, vulnerability to biotic and abiotic stresses, and the complexity of polygenic traits have limited pea genetic improvement. Breeding of pea has been revolutionized with the advent of biotechnology, which has enabled the breeder to make the desired changes selectively, quickly, and as needed. Quality reference genomes, dense molecular markers, quantitative trait loci (QTL), and genome-wide association studies (GWAS) are genomic resources that have been utilized in unraveling complex traits and identifying desirable alleles. Among the methods used to accelerate cultivar development is high-throughput phenotyping based on the application of molecular breeding, such as marker-assisted selection (MAS), marker-assisted backcrossing (MABC), or genomic selection (GS), and speed breeding. Transgenic systems, including genetic engineering and others, have introduced novel characteristics (e.g., disease and insect resistance), and the system using genome editing, particularly CRISPR/Cas, can be utilized in conjunction with previously unheard-of accuracy in editing properties of yield, stress, and quality. These biotechnological tools, in combination with traditional breeding, have led to the introduction of pea cultivars that are high-yielding, resistant, and contain nutritionally enhanced properties. Pangenomics, artificial intelligence, and synthetic biology are some of the upcoming technologies that will strive to enhance pea in the future to contribute to food security in the world, as well as climate-adaptive agriculture. The majority of reported yield, stress-tolerance, and nutritional-enhancement improvements are, however, pegged on published QTL/GWAS relations and experimental validation in regulated or multi-location field trials, whereas others are projected potential based on genomic resources and a marker-based breeding pipeline.
Insecticidal Potential of Emerging Entomopathogens Against Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius)
The present study evaluated the insecticidal potential of two emerging entomopathogenic fungal genera, Penicillium and Cladosporium, against different life stages of the cotton whitefly (Bemisia tabaci). Pathogenicity assays were conducted on 4th instar nymphs and adults using two conidial concentrations (4×10⁸ and 4×10⁴ spores mL⁻¹), with each treatment performed in three independent replicates. Results showed that both fungal genera were more effective against nymphs than adults, with Penicillium species demonstrating higher virulence overall. Among them, P. expansum exhibited the highest mortality against both developmental stages. Similarly, Cladosporium sp. outperformed C. cladosporioides, showing more consistent efficacy across spore concentrations. The findings suggest that specific isolates of Penicillium and Cladosporium have promising potential as biocontrol agents against B. tabaci, particularly at the nymphal stage. These insights contribute to the development of environmentally friendly pest management strategies in cotton cultivation.
Infestation Level of Helicoverpa Armigera (Hubner) in Different Tomato Varieties in Selected Districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
The study compared the dynamics of infestation of Helicoverpa armigera (Hubner), associated fruit damage, and yield losses in six tomato varieties (Red King, Rio Grande, Florida King, Roma, Sahel, and 1359) in 2020 and 2021, and their correlation with weather parameters in three districts of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan (Peshawar, Bajaur, and Swat). The level of infestation was considerably different during the growing season, with the first appearance of eggs in the 11th meteorological week, followed by the appearance of larvae in the 13th week, peak population in the 19th week, and gradual decline in the 21st week in all locations and varieties. The lowest infestations were recorded in Sahel (1.24-1.87 eggs plant-1 and 1.241.56 larvae plant-1) and Rio Grande (1.942.58 eggs plant-1 and 1.72 2.58 larvae plant-1). Temperature significantly affected the level of infestation, with the highest population being at 20–26 °C and 27–30 °C. Relative humidity had significant negative relationships with the population of larvae in all districts and years, as compared to rainfall, which had no significant effect because it had low occurrence during the cropping season. Infestation varietal variations were directly converted into fruit damage and loss of production. Damage to fruits fell between 19.97 with Roma and Rio Grande experiencing the greatest damage, and Sahel and 1359 had the lowest damage in all the districts. There is a negative correlation between the infestation intensity and yield performance, where Sahel and 1359 gave the best yield (a maximum of around 15,800 kg ha-1), and Rio Grande and Florida King were the lowest yielders. Correlation analysis indicated that there were location-specific temperature and infestation correlations, with a significant positive correlation in Bajaur, a non-significant positive correlation in Peshawar, and a significant negative correlation in Swat. Comprehensively, the research proves that abiotic factors, especially temperature and relative humidity, and varietal resistance are major factors in determining the level of H. armigera infestation, fruit damage, and yield results. It is highlighted that it is essential to implement location-specific controls of pests and develop tolerant varieties like Sahel and 1359 to reduce losses caused by pests and increase the tomato yields.
Performance of Different Cotton Genotypes under Different Infestation Levels of Whitefly Populations
Cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L.) production is severely limited by biotic stresses such as whitefly (Bemisia tabaci) infestation and CLCuD. Seven cotton genotypes were evaluated under three levels of stress (Control, T1, and T2) in a factorial completely randomized design with three replications in April 2025, sown at Plant Pathology Research Institute, Ayub Agricultural Research Institute, Faisalabad, to study pests and disease dynamics, growth and yield components, as well as the relationship among important agronomic parameters. Adult whitefly densities and disease indices increased gradually from Control to T2 , while G6 was always the most susceptible and G3 the least. Growth indices followed similar trends, confirming an increase in pest and disease pressure severely compromising plant health. Similarly, plant height, bolls per plant, boll weight, and seed cotton yield decreased in whitefly treatments, with more reduction under T2. Correlation studies indicated strong negative relationships of adult whitefly populations and CLCuD incidence with growth characters, whereas bolls per plant, boll weight, and plant height were positively correlated with seed cotton yield. Seed index showed negative correlations with almost all the yield components and a positive correlation with disease incidence, revealing compensatory allocation under stress. ANOVA revealed that the causes of variation in yield-related traits were up to 80 % attributed to genetic differences, and disease expression was more affected by treatment factors. This indicated that the distribution of plant height was equally due to genetic and treatment (phenotypic plasticity) factors. These findings in general indicate that whitefly infestation, along with CLCuD have significant deterring effect on the growth and yield of cotton, as well as genotype variation for susceptibility and yield potential. These findings provide a practical foundation for cotton breeding programs by identifying stable, stress-tolerant genotypes and key selection traits that can be exploited to develop high-yielding cultivars with enhanced resistance to whitefly and CLCuD under biotic stress environments.
Cross-Sectional Assessment of Poultry Infectious Diseases Across Different Production Systems and Breeds in Karachi
Background: In Karachi, Pakistan, poultry production is a pivotal source of income and nutrition, but the productivity is significantly limited by infectious diseases. Despite the significance of breed-specific disease dynamics to effective control, there is limited local epidemiological data on various production systems. Objectives: The purpose of this study was to identify the prevalence of the major infectious poultry diseases, evaluate the susceptibility by breed and age, and define the main management and biosecurity risk factors of the commercial and indigenous chicken population in Karachi. Methods: A multistage stratified sampling design was used to select three randomly chosen districts, where a cross-sectional survey was done. Backyard flocks, commercial broiler and layer farms, were all covered. Data was gathered due to the clinical examination, structured farmer questionnaires, and biological sampling (oropharyngeal, cloacal, blood, and fecal samples). The rapid antigen tests, ELISA, and PCR were used to detect major viral pathogens, bacterial pathogens, and parasitic pathogens. The descriptive statistics and multivariate logistic regression were used to analyze disease prevalence and risk factors. Key Findings: Infectious diseases were widespread in all production systems, among 80,000 birds that were investigated. In layers, bacterial infections had dominated, whilst viral infections had been more prevalent in broilers. The most common bacterial diseases were salmonellosis and colibacillosis, and the most common viral infections that were identified included Newcastle disease, infectious bronchitis, and infectious bursal disease. Protozoal infections were also low but significant (mostly coccidiosis). The incidences of disease were different according to breed and age, with salmonellosis among the older birds and Newcastle disease in the younger flocks. Risk factors included poor hygiene, insufficient vaccination, and poor biosecurity. Poor biosecurity (AOR = 3.42; 95% CI: 2.61-4.48), absence of vaccination (AOR = 2.87; 95% CI: 2.03-4.06), and deep-litter housing (AOR = 1.94; 95% CI: 1.31-2.88) were found to be significant predictors of occurrence of infectious diseases using multivariate logistic regression. Implications: The poultry sector of Karachi is significantly affected by infectious diseases, and this need is indicative of major lapses in the management of farms and the prevention of diseases. The results of this study can be used to justify the application of focused vaccination initiatives, better biosecurity, and breed-specific disease management methods to minimize the loss of production and improve the health of poultry in the area.
Selenium-Facilitated Antioxidant System Response in Zea Mays Seedlings Under Reactive Oxygen Species-Induced Stress
Selenium (Se) is a vital micronutrient that plays an important role in metabolic, cellular, and physiological activities. Its deficiency can hinder growth, immunity, fertility, and cellular structure. This study inspected the effect of selenium and hydrogen peroxide-induced oxidative stress on the Zea mays L. seed germination, growth, and antioxidative activity. Soil samples were collected produced significant selenite-resistant and auxin-producing strains. These isolates were further tested for selenite reduction, plant growth-promoting characteristics, and other biochemical properties. Optimal selenite reduction was achieved at pH 7 at a temperature of 37°C, and up to 1900 μg ml⁻¹ concentration. Responses to high selenite concentrations fluctuated from strain to strain, including variations in growth, auxin production, and antimicrobial activity against Bacillus thuringiensis. After six days of exposure to 20 mM H₂O₂, a considerable rise in root malondialdehyde content was seen, suggesting the presence of oxidative stress. Generally, selenium improved antioxidative defense mechanisms and tolerance to H₂O₂ stress. These findings deduce that PGPR inoculation significantly reduced H₂O₂ and MDA levels while enhancing POD activity and seedling growth under oxidative stress.
Cytotoxicity and Antimicrobial Potential of Salvodora Persica
Salvadora persica Miswak is a halophytic shrub renowned for its traditional medicinal uses, particularly in oral hygiene. This study was carried out to investigate the antimicrobial and cytotoxic potential of the ethanolic extract of the whole plant of S. persica. The extract was evaluated for its antibacterial and antifungal potential against a range of bacterial (Gram-positive and Gram-negative) and fungal strains using the disc and agar well diffusion methods, respectively. Cytotoxicity was assessed using the Brine Shrimp Lethality Assay (BSLA). The results exhibited significant, dose-dependent antimicrobial activity, with the extract showing greater efficacy against Gram-positive bacterium Staphylococcus aureus, with the inhibition zone of 31.0 mm at 300 mg mL-1 extract concentration. It also showed notable inhibition against several fungal pathogens with a maximum inhibition zone of 32 mm for Candida albicans and Trichophyton longifusus at 300 mg mL-1 concentration. Furthermore, the extract exhibited potent cytotoxicity in the BSLA, with a lethal concentration (LC₅₀) value of 10 µg mL-1, indicating the presence of bioactive compounds with toxic potential. The findings confirmed that S. persica possesses substantial antimicrobial and cytotoxic properties, supporting its traditional use and suggesting its potential as a source for developing natural therapeutic agents.
Studies on Digestive Anatomy and Digestibility Influenced by Cassia Fistula Powder in Gallus Domestics
The present study was conducted to evaluate the effects of Cassia fistula (CF) powder as a phytogenic feed additive on nutrient digestibility, intestinal morphology, and liver histology in broiler chickens, with particular emphasis on the starter phase. A total of 80 one-day-old broiler chicks were randomly allocated to six experimental groups under a completely randomized design. Group G1 (commercial diet) and G2 (basal diet) served as control groups. Groups G3 and G4 received basal diets supplemented with CF powder at 250 mg/kg during the starter and finisher phases, respectively, while groups G5 and G6 received commercial diets supplemented with CF powder at the same dose during the starter and finisher phases, respectively. Parameters evaluated included nutrient digestibility (crude protein, fat, and metabolizable energy), relative organ weights, intestinal histomorphology, and liver histology. Dietary supplementation of CF powder, particularly in group G5, resulted in a significant (p < 0.05) improvement in crude protein, fat, and metabolizable energy utilization compared to control and other treated groups. Relative weights of digestive organs (proventriculus, liver, and gizzard) did not differ significantly (p > 0.05) among groups, indicating the absence of adverse effects. Intestinal histomorphology revealed a significant (p < 0.05) increase in villus height in CF-supplemented groups, suggesting enhanced absorptive capacity. Liver histological examination showed normal hepatic architecture across all treatment groups, with no evidence of pathological alterations, supporting the safety of CF supplementation at the tested dose. In conclusion, dietary inclusion of Cassia fistula powder at 250 mg/kg, particularly when supplemented during the starter phase with a commercial diet, improved nutrient utilization and intestinal morphology without inducing hepatic toxicity. These findings suggest that Cassia fistula has potential as a natural, safe phytogenic feed additive to improve digestive efficiency in broiler production, although further studies incorporating biochemical and dose-response evaluations are warranted.
Comparative Evaluation of Neem Leaf Extract and Powder as Natural Antibacterial Agents Against Staphylococcus Aureus
Azadirachta indica possess antiviral, antimicrobial, antioxidant, and antimalarial qualities due to a rich source of bioactive compounds. The study was conducted to find out the antibacterial activity of methanol extracts and powdered leaves of A. indica against Staphylococcus aureus. 25 g of finely ground powdered dried leaves was dissolved in 100 ml of methanol for an hour. To prepare the methanolic extract, 25 g of powdered leaf was mixed with methanol and allowed to stand for a week. Different concentrations of leaf extract and powder, ranging from 0.25, 0.3, 0.35, 0.4, 0.5, 1, 1.5, and 2.0 mg, were prepared after filtration and tested against cultured strains of bacteria, using both agars well diffusion and disc diffusion methods. The antibacterial evaluation was done by measuring the diameter of inhibition zones. According to statistical data, at a concentration of 0.25 mg/mL, the methanol neem powder showed the highest zone of inhibition (3.6 mm), while the lowest inhibition zone (0.7 mm) was recorded at 2 mg/mL. In comparison to the methanol extract, the powder shows greater effectiveness against S. aureus. At 2 mg/ml, methanol extract showed minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) which is found to be 6.2 µg/ml, whereas the highest inhibitory value at 0.25 mg/mL was 0.6 µg/ml. Along with flavonoids and tannins, which enhance effectiveness by damaging bacterial cell walls, inhibiting enzymes, and generating oxidative stress, the strong antibacterial activity of neem is mainly attributed to its major bioactive compounds i.e Limonoids (azadirachtin, nimbin, nimbolide). For developing natural antibacterial drugs, Neem can be considered a very promising source due to its remarkable antibacterial potential.
Bioactive Properties and Nutritional Value of Camel Milk: An Updated Overview
Traditionally sipped in dry areas, camel milk has been of interest from all around the world because of its unusual nutritional makeup and possible therapeutic benefits. This paper provides an overview of the dietary components as well as the health advantages linked to consuming camel milk. Protein, vitamins (especially the B and C vitamins), minerals (calcium, potassium, and magnesium), and important fatty acids are all abundant in camel milk. Moreover, it has bioactive substances that support its antibacterial, anti-inflammatory, and immunomodulatory qualities, including lysozyme, lactoferrin, and immunoglobulin. Research indicates that camel milk might provide medical benefits for many illnesses, such as autism spectrum disorder, diabetes, heart disease, and gastrointestinal issues. Additionally, camel milk has been investigated as a potential replacement for milk from cows in cases of lactose intolerance or allergy to milk proteins. To completely evaluate its therapeutic potential and understand the processes underlying its health advantages, more research is necessary. All things considered, camel milk shows potential as a functional food with a variety of nutritional and therapeutic qualities, offering hope for both therapeutic and preventive uses in human health.
Screening of Cotton (G. hirsutum L.) for Cotton Leaf Curl Virus (CLCuV) Through Pathological, Morphological and Fiber Quality Parameters
This study was conducted to evaluate genetic variability in diverse cotton genotypes under disease stress conditions, to find correlation between pathological, morphological and fiber quality parameters, and to identify potential sources of resistance and yield stability. A comprehensive analysis of genotypes for said characters revealed significant to highly significant differences across genotypes, indicating ample genetic diversity for selection. Highly significant MSS values were observed for DI (1650.4**) and DSI (1280.55**), reflecting pronounced variability in disease reaction and confirming the presence of both resistant and susceptible genotypes. Yield-related traits, including SCY (1200.65**) and LY (980.35*), also showed significant variation, demonstrating the influence of disease stress on productivity. Strong positive correlations were recorded among LY, SCY, GOT, and STR, suggesting that these yield and fiber traits are interdependent and can be jointly improved through selection. Conversely, negative correlations between disease indices (DI, DSI) and yield parameters emphasize the yield-reducing effect of disease infection. Fiber-related attributes such as FL, STR, and UI exhibited moderate to high positive associations, supporting their stability as selection criteria for quality improvement. The findings suggested that genotypes combining low DSI with high SCY, LY, and GOT are valuable candidates for developing resistant and high-yielding cultivars. Overall, the study highlighted the genetic potential within the evaluated germplasm and provides a foundation for future breeding strategies targeting disease resilience and enhanced fiber productivity in cotton.
Nutritional and Pharmacological Properties of Papaya Peel: A Comprehensive Review
Food waste is a significant problem with ecological, ethical, societal, and economic implications. The global papaya market is likely to grow significantly between 2022 and 2027, leading to an increase in organic and discarded leftovers like peels and seeds. Papaya is a profitable and nutritious fruit that is gaining acceptance in Pakistan. Papaya fruit pulp and its other parts, including leaves, peels, roots, and seeds, have nourishing and medicinal significance. The pulp of papaya fruit contains an abundance of vitamins and minerals, while many valuable bioactive compounds are available in fruit peels and seeds. These bioactive components have a vital role in pharmacological activities, including antibacterial, anticancer activity, antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, wound-healing, antidiabetic, and many more, which are due to the presence of some phytochemicals, including phenolic, flavonoids, and alkaloids. Additionally, the nutritive profile of papaya peel is under development because of its potential applications in the food and pharmaceutical industries. This review paper targets to highlight the nutritional and pharmacological properties of papaya peel, with an emphasis on promoting sustainable waste management in practical applications.
Nutritional, Therapeutic and Food Industrial Aspects of Fennel Seeds (Foeniculum vulgare): A Comprehensive Review
Fennel (Foeniculum vulgare), a perennial aromatic herb belonging to the family Apiaceae, has been valued since ancient times for its medicinal, nutritional, and culinary properties. Originating from the Mediterranean region, fennel is now cultivated globally, particularly in India, Egypt, and Italy. It is rich in essential nutrients such as potassium, calcium, iron, vitamin C, and dietary fiber, which contribute to digestive health, metabolic balance, and cardiovascular support. Phytochemically, fennel seeds contain volatile compounds like anethole, fenchone, and estragole, along with phenolic acids and flavonoids, including quercetin and rosmarinic acid, that exhibit strong antioxidant, antimicrobial, and anti-inflammatory activities. These bioactive constituents are responsible for fennel’s diverse therapeutic benefits, such as relieving gastrointestinal disorders, reducing oxidative stress, and regulating hormonal balance. Moreover, fennel has shown potential anti-diabetic, anti-obesity, and anticancer effects in various experimental studies. In traditional medicine, it is widely used to promote lactation, alleviate menstrual discomfort, and enhance memory. In the food industry, fennel seeds and their essential oils serve as natural flavoring agents in bakery items, confectionery, beverages, and spice blends. Additionally, fennel demonstrates environmental significance through its insecticidal and larvicidal activities, offering eco-friendly pest control alternatives. Due to its broad pharmacological and industrial applications, fennel remains a promising plant resource for functional foods, natural therapeutics, and agro-based innovations. Updates on F. vulgare, including its nutritional composition, traditional system use, pharmacological attributes, and significant potential as laborious cooking ingredients, were compiled in this chapter.
Design and Fabrication of an Automated Mini Portable Sprinkler System
This research addresses critical limitations in Pakistan's agricultural sector, where irrigation is essential to sustain productivity for major crops like wheat, cotton, sugarcane, and rice. Current irrigation systems are often inefficient, lack automation, fail to accurately gauge adequate water application, and require significant user input, manual operation, and technical expertise. To overcome these challenges, a novel automated and portable pivotal sprinkler irrigation system is presented. The system's core is controlled by an Arduino Nano microcontroller, enabling fully automated operation. A key feature is the integration of a Bluetooth module, allowing a user to wirelessly control the system's movement right, left, forward, and backward-via a mobile device, effectively eliminating the need for complex, manual water supply connections. The water application depth is made adjustable through interchangeable sprinkler nozzles. Designed to be portable and easily managed, the framework features a fixed central point and a long rotating arm that pivots with the assistance of a sham wheel. This work successfully develops a compact and automated center-pivot system, proving the concept using Arduino Nano. Beyond new installations, the customizable design of this automated system offers a viable solution to upgrade and retrofit existing spraying, drip, and traditional sprinkler irrigation machinery, enhancing efficiency and resolving existing operational constraints across diverse field environments.
Synthesis and Evaluation of Organo-Mineral Phosphatic Fertilizers from the Agricultural and Agro-Industrial Wastes to Improve the Phosphorus Use Efficiency of Bell Pepper (Capsicum Annuum)
The conversion of animal waste and agricultural by-products into organ mineral fertilizers is the best way to manage animal waste and use them as soil amendments to improve soil health and enhance nutrient availability. Animal waste can cause serious environmental consequences if not managed properly. This study was planned to convert animal waste into valuable and nutritional fertilizer for plants. We used cow dung, poultry manure, and different ratios of elemental sulfur and humic acid for the preparation of Organo-mineral Phosphatic fertilizer (OMPF). Di-ammonium phosphate was also used as a mineral source of Phosphorus (P). A total of six treatments (4 of OMPF with 5% humic acid, 5% elemental sulfur, 2.5% humic acid with 2.5% elemental sulfur, and only OMPF, 1 of DAP, and 1 as a control with no P) were evaluated under a pot trial using Bell pepper (Capsicum Annuum) as a test crop. Treatments were applied according to a complete randomized design (CRD) with three replications, and achieved 20% higher PUE as compared to DAP. It is concluded that application of P as OMPF can significantly enhance shoot fresh weight, root fresh weight, and chlorophyll content with 45 %, 52.6%, and 21%, respectively. And OMPF performs more significantly than the control treatment and positively effect on plant nutrients availability. However, more field studies are needed for broader applications of this technology.
Response of Turnip to Sowing Dates and Phosphorus Levels
The present experiment entitled “Response of turnip to sowing dates and phosphorus levels” was conducted during (2020-2021) at the Horticulture Research Farm, The University of Agriculture, Peshawar. The experiment was carried out using a Randomized Complete Block Design with a split-plot arrangement having three replications. Different sowing date’s i.e., (1st, 15th, 30th October), were taken in the main plot while phosphorus levels, i.e., (0, 25, 50, 75, and 100 kg ha-1), were taken in the sub plot. The data was observed on days to emergence, number of leaves, leaves weight, root length, root weight, root diameter, yield plot-1, and yield (tons ha-1). Sowing dates and phosphorus levels have significantly affected all the studied parameters. Maximum number of leaves plant-1 (13), leaves weight (172.8 g), root length (12.8 cm), root weight (206.1 g), root diameters (8.9 cm), yield plot-1 (9.4 kg), and yield (20.1 tons ha-1) with minimum days to emergence (4) were recorded in plants sown on 1st October. Highest number of leaves (14), leaves weight (177.9 g), root length (14 cm), root weight (213.6 g), root diameters (9.4 cm), highest yield plot-1 (10.1 kg) and yield (21.8 tons ha-1) with minimum days to emergence (5) were recorded in plants treated with phosphorus at 100 kg ha-1. The interaction between sowing dates and phosphorus levels was found to be non-significant. It is concluded that seed sown on (1st October) and phosphorus levels (100 kg ha-1) have significantly improved the growth and yield parameters of turnip and hence are recommended for turnip growers in Peshawar.
Effect of Different Methods of Phosphorus Application on Growth and Agronomic Traits of Wheat Under Arid and Semi- Arid Conditions of Bannu Division
The effect of different methods of Phosphorus application was tested on wheat for two seasons, Rabi 2022-23 and 2023-24 at Agricultural Research Station Serai Naurang (Bannu) Khyber Pakhtunkhwa Pakistan. Five methods of application such as application by broadcast method (MP1), application through mixing with seed at the time of sowing (MP2), placing by drill below the seed at the time of sowing (MP3), placing by drill on one side of the row of crop (MP4) and placing by drill with both sides of the row of the crop (MP5) were tested. Variety Khaista-2017 was used during this investigation. The study was focused on growth traits and yield parameters. The highest significant grain yield (6864 kg ha-1), biological yield (17990 kg ha-1), 1000 grain weight (50 grams), grain per spike (66), tillers m-2 (441), spike m-2 (449), plant height (100.15 cm) and harvest index (38.58 %) were noted when Phosphorus was placed by drill on both sides of the crop row. The 2nd most encouraging results were recorded for the method of placing by drill on one side of crop row. This research will help to solve food security problem. Findings of this research will also assist farming community to use suitable method of Phosphorus application and update their production technology. Moreover, by applying results of this research, plant breeders will evolve and develop genotypes of wheat with great potential.
Effect of Various Post-Harvest Techniques on Banana (Musa spp.) Cultivar Quality
A comparative study was conducted to evaluate the efficacy of four different post-harvest treatments (T0 (Control), T₁: Fruit kept in perforated polyethylene bag, T2: Fruits kept in colour polythene bag, and T3: Fruits treated with aloe-vera gel assisted with gibberellic acid (GA3) on the quality attributes and shelf life of two economically important banana cultivars, G-9 (V1) and Bombay (V2), over a 24-day storage period. The study showed that post-harvest treatments had not worked the same way for both cultivars. Each variety responded differently, with a clear trade-off between keeping the fruit firm and slowing down the biochemical changes tied to ripening. T3 stood out for reducing weight loss in both varieties, resulting in a weight reduction of approximately 10.5%. That showed strong peel protection against water loss. However, once you look at ripening, the situation changes: in V1, T3 showed increased sugar levels rapidly, giving the highest sugar and TSS values, while in V2 showed lower sugar development. By contrast, T2 slowed ripening visually in V1 and kept TSS values in a better range for V2. However, the shelf-life assessment revealed a critical limitation: while V1 maintained a 12-day shelf life across all treatments, the V2 (Bombay) variety proved highly sensitive to T1 and T2, which unexpectedly reduced its marketed shelf life to only 9 days. This result highlights the challenges of applying uniform treatments across varieties. The varying results highlight the challenge of applying a single technique to all varieties: T3 is the most effective at delaying weight loss; however, its inconsistent effects on sugar development indicate the necessity of treatment plans specific to each variety, striking the correct balance between reducing transpiration and directing ripening.